Paul O. Dillon, Attorney at Law

How to Address Cryptocurrency in Your Estate Plan

Cryptocurrency has become an increasingly prevalent part of personal wealth. This new asset class requires traditional tools, like wills and trusts, to be updated to account for the decentralized nature of digital assets. The many stories of people who lost millions, because they didn’t secure their own crypto, should serve as a warning to anyone who wants to bequeath their digital wealth. What to do is addressed in a recent article from Kiplinger, “Heirs Inheriting Crypto? Don’t Make It a Headache for Them.”

Probate is a genuine concern for crypto. Probate is the process of a court validating a will and distributing assets. It often takes a long time and can be expensive. The volatility of crypto makes the lengthy process of probate a serious concern. Delays in probate could create dramatic losses.

Access to cryptocurrency is another challenge. Ownership of digital assets is tied to private keys. A lost key means lost wealth. Since crypto, like Bitcoin or Ethereum, are decentralized and operate on blockchain technology. As a result, there’s no financial or trading institution to call for help. If the access is lost, so is the asset.

With traditional assets, designating beneficiaries is the simplest way to pass assets directly to heirs and skip probate entirely. To do this with crypto, you must log into your account and see if the platform allows beneficiary designations.

Some cryptocurrencies call this a Transfer on Death or TOD form. Fill out the form correctly and keep hard and digital copies for your records. Even if you never print any other documents, you may want to print these and keep them in a secure location.

Digital wallets are also part of crypto estate planning. Digital wallets store private keys required to access, send and receive digital assets. Some digital wallets don’t offer beneficiary designations, so you’ll need to be very diligent about keeping a record of access credentials and secure private keys.

You’ll need to include detailed instructions on accessing a digital wallet, including passwords, recovery phrases, or locations of physical devices, including your phone, tablet, or computer. Consider using an encrypted file or hardware wallet for private keys. Custodial services are available. However, be sure they offer the security you need.

Estate planning attorneys may recommend using a trust for digital assets to be sure that they are managed and transferred without court involvement. Your estate planning attorney will explain how a revocable living trust may help you retain control of your crypto while you are living and provide directions for how you want it to be distributed after your death.

Just as you need to fund the trust by retitling assets for a traditional asset, you’ll need to move your cryptocurrency to a wallet owned by the trust. You may need to create a new wallet under the trust’s name if you can’t transfer funds to an existing wallet.

The trust will need a successor trustee. This trustee must know how private keys and recovery works for digital assets. They’ll oversee keeping your private keys and other information safe and how to access wallets or exchanges holding your wealth.

Your will should not include account numbers or wallet addresses, as they become part of the public record during probate. You’ll need another document to contain the information for your trustee to access the digital assets. If you own crypto or less well-known types of digital assets, providing access information and specific directions will be even more critical.

Speak with an estate planning attorney who has experience with digital assets. They’ll help you protect these assets, so they aren’t lost if the unexpected should occur.

Reference: Kiplinger (Feb. 16, 2025) “Heirs Inheriting Crypto? Don’t Make It a Headache for Them”

Estate Planning for Digital Assets

Whether you know it or not, you have a “digital footprint,” defined as the trail of data you create when using the internet, including photos, opinions, videos and financial and tax records. Just as we need an estate plan for traditional assets, a recent article from Think Advisor, “4 Ways to Help Clients With Digital Assets,” urges us to have a plan for digital assets. This makes life far easier for loved ones after we pass, protects the estate and limits identity theft.

The first step is to take inventory of your digital assets. This includes everything from assets owned by your business to your personal life. Online content, graphics, audio and videos are just the start. These four categories may be helpful:

Personal assets: Photos, videos, emails, contact lists, medical records, blogs, e-books, e-gaming assets, information on frequent flier miles, loyalty programs, etc.

Social assets: Facebook, Linked In, Instagram, Pinterest, X (Twitter), What’s App, Telegram and any platform where you communicate and post with others.

Financial assets: Investment and retirement accounts, banks, credit cards, tax documents, Pay Pal, Apple Pay and cryptocurrency.

Business assets: Websites, domain names, customer information, vendor information, intellectual property.

A digital inventory should not be part of your will, as the will becomes a public document once it is filed with the court. However, it should be treated the same as wills, trusts and transfer-on-death documents: kept in a secure location.

Next, name a Digital Executor. This is not yet legally binding in all states. However, you’ll want to name a tech-savvy person who can manage digital assets. This needs to be someone comfortable with the digital world and who understands what you want to happen to your digital assets.

For the most part, email accounts with companies like Yahoo and Google are actually owned by the companies and only licensed to users. Whether you remember or not, when you created the account, you opted into a “Terms of Service Agreement” or TOSA and agreed to use the platform. However, you didn’t purchase the email account itself.

Some platforms allow you to name a legacy contact to take control of your digital accounts. However, you’ll have to name someone, and they’ll need to reach out to the company and provide documentation as requested.

This may sound like a lot of work. However, not addressing digital assets means your digital and traditional assets may be vulnerable to cybercrime, including identity theft, hacking and fraud. Unlike traditional assets with a hard-copy paper trail, your digital executor will not be able to locate and manage digital assets without this information.

Talk with your estate planning attorney about how digital assets are handled in your state and for their recommendations on preparing this part of your estate.

Reference: Think Advisor (Aug. 4, 2024) “4 Ways to Help Clients With Digital Assets”

Can You Plan for Probate?

What can you do to help heirs have a smooth transition when settling your estate? A recent article from The Community Voice, “Managing probate when setting up your estate,” provides some recommendations.

Joint accounts. Married couples can own property as joint tenancy, which includes a right of survivorship. When one of the spouses dies, the other becomes the owner and the asset doesn’t have to go through probate. In some states, this is called tenancy by the entirety, in which married spouses each own an undivided interest in the whole property with the right of survivorship. They need content from the other spouse to transfer their ownership interest in the property. Some states allow community property with right of survivorship.

There are some vulnerabilities to joint ownership. A potential heir could claim the account is not a “true” joint account, but a “convenience” account whereby the second account owner was added solely for financial expediency. The joint account arrangement with right of survivorship may also not align with the estate plan.

Payment on Death (POD) and Transfer on Death (TOD) accounts. These types of accounts allow for easy transfer of bank accounts and securities. If the original owner lives, the named beneficiary has no right to claim account funds. When the original owner dies, all the named beneficiary need do is bring proper identification and proof of the owner’s death to claim the assets. This also needs to align with the estate plan to ensure that it achieves the testator’s wishes.

Gifting strategies. In 2022, taxpayers may gift up to $16,000 to as many people as you wish before owing taxes. This is a straight-forward way to reduce the taxable estate. Gifts over $ 16,000 may be subject to federal gift tax and count against your lifetime gift tax exclusion. The lifetime individual gift tax exemption is currently at $12.06 million, although few Americans need worry about this level.

Revocable living trusts. Trusts are used to take assets out of the taxable estate and place them in a separate legal entity having specific directions for asset distributions. A living trust, established during your lifetime, can hold whatever assets you want. A “pour-over will” may be used to add additional assets to the trust at death, although the assets “poured over” into the trust at death are still subject to probate.

The trust owns the assets. However, with a revocable living trust, the grantor (the person who created the trust) has full control of the assets. When the grantor dies, the trust becomes an irrevocable trust and assets are distributed by a successor trustee without being probated. This provides privacy and saves on court costs.

Trusts are not for do-it-yourselfers. An experienced estate planning attorney is needed to create the trust and ensure that it follows complex tax rules and regulations.

Reference: The Community Voice (Nov. 11, 2022) “Managing probate when setting up your estate”

What Assets are Not Considered Part of an Estate?

In many families, more assets pass outside the Last Will than through the Last Will. Think about non-probate assets: life insurance proceeds, investment accounts, jointly titled real estate assets, assuming they were titled as joint tenants with right of survivorship, and the like. These often add up to considerable sums, often more than the probate estate.

This is why a recent article from The Mercury titled “Planning Ahead: Pay attention to your non-probate assets” strongly urges readers to pay close attention to accounts transferred by beneficiary.

Most retirement accounts like IRAs, 401(k)s, 403(b)s and others pass by beneficiary designation and not through the Last Will. Banks and investment accounts designated as Payable on Death (POD) or Transfer on Death (TOD) also do not pass through probate, but to the other person named on the account. Any property owned by a trust does not go through probate, one of the reasons it is placed in the trust.

Why is it important to know whether assets pass through probate or by beneficiary designation? Here’s an example. A man was promised half of this father’s estate. His dad had remarried, and the son didn’t know what estate plans had been made, if any, with the new spouse. When the father passed, the man received a single check for several thousand dollars. He knew his father’s estate was worth considerably more.

What is most likely to have happened is simple. The father probably retitled the house with his new spouse as tenants by the entireties–making it a non-probate asset. He probably retitled bank accounts with his new spouse. And if the father had a new Last Will created, he likely gave 50% to the son and 50% to the new spouse. The father’s car may have been the only asset not jointly owned with his new spouse.

A parent can also accidently disinherit an heir, if all of their non-probate assets are in one child’s name and no provision for the non-probate assets has been made for any other children. An estate planning attorney can work with the parents to find a way to make inheritances equal, if the intention is for all of the children to receive an equal share. One way to accomplish this would be to give the other children a larger share of probated assets.

Any division of inheritance should bear in mind the tax liability of assets. Non-probate does not always mean non-taxed. Depending upon the state of residence for the decedent and the heirs, there may be estate or inheritance tax on the assets.

Placing assets in an irrevocable trust is a commonly used estate planning method to ensure inheritances are received by the intended parties. The trust allows you to give very specific instructions about who gets what. Assets in the trust are outside of the probate estate, since the trust is not owned by the grantor.

Your estate planning attorney will be able to review probate and non-probate assets to determine the best way to achieve your wishes for your distribution of assets.

Reference: The Mercury (April 12, 2022) “Planning Ahead: Pay attention to your non-probate assets”

What Is Considered an Asset in an Estate?

Estate planning attorneys are often asked if a particular asset will be included in an estate, from life insurance and real estate to employment contracts and Health Savings Accounts. The answer is explored in the aptly-titled article, “Will It (My Home, My Life Insurance, Etc.) Be in My Estate?” from Kiplinger.

When you die, your estate is defined in different ways for different planning purposes. You have a gross estate for federal estate taxes. However, there’s also the probate estate. You may also be thinking of whether an asset is part of your estate to be passed onto heirs. It depends on which part of your estate you’re focusing on.

Let’s start with life insurance. You’ve purchased a policy for $500,000, with your son as the designated beneficiary. If you own the policy, the entire $500,000 death benefit will be included in your gross estate for federal estate tax purposes. If your estate is big enough ($12.06 million in 2022), the entire death benefit above the exemption is subject to a 40% federal estate tax.

However, if you want to know if the policy will be included in your probate estate, the answer is no. Proceeds from life insurance policies are not subject to probate, since the death benefit passes by contract directly to the beneficiaries.

Next, is the policy an estate asset available for heirs, creditors, taxing authorities, etc.? The answer is a little less clear. Since your son was named the designated beneficiary, your estate can’t use the proceeds to fulfill bequests made to others through your will. Even if you disowned your son since naming him on the policy and changed your will to pass your estate to other children, the life insurance policy is a contract. Therefore, the money is going to your son, unless you change this while you are still living.

However, there’s a little wrinkle here. Can the proceeds of the life insurance policy be diverted to pay creditors, taxes, or other estate obligations? Here the answer is, it depends. An example is if your son receives the money from the insurance company but your will directs that his share of the probate estate be reduced to reflect his share of costs associated with probate. If the estate doesn’t have enough assets to cover the cost of probate, he may need to tap the proceeds to pay his share.

Another aspect of figuring out what’s included in your estate depends upon where you live. In community property states—Arizona, California, Idaho, Louisiana, New Mexico, Nevada, Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin—assets are treated differently for estate tax purposes than in states with what’s known as “common law” for married couples. Also, in most states, real estate owned on a fee simple basis is simply transferred on death through the probate estate, while in other states, an alternative exists where a Transfer on Death (TOD) deed is used.

This legal jargon may be confusing, but it’s important to know, because if property is in your probate estate, expenses may vary from 2% to 6%, versus assets outside of probate, which have no expenses.

Speak with an experienced estate planning attorney in your state of residence to know what assets are included in your federal estate, what are part of your probate estate and what taxes will be levied on your estate from the state or federal governments and don’t forget, some states have inheritance taxes your heirs will need to pay.

Reference: Kiplinger (Dec. 13, 2021) “Will It (My Home, My Life Insurance, Etc.) Be in My Estate?”

What a Will Won’t Accomplish

Everyone needs a will. A last will and testament is how an executor is named to manage your estate, how a guardian is named to care for any minor children and how you give directions for distribution of property. However, not all property passes via your will. You’ll want to know what a will can and cannot do, as well as how assets are distributed outside of a will. This was the topic of “The Legal Limits of Your Will” from AARP Magazine.

Retirement and Pension Accounts

The beneficiaries named on retirement accounts, including 401(k)s, pensions, and IRAs, receive these assets directly. Some states have laws about requiring spouses to receive some or all assets. However, if you don’t keep these beneficiary names updated, the wrong person may receive the asset, like it or not. Don’t expect anyone to willingly give up a surprise windfall. If a primary beneficiary has died and no contingency beneficiary was named, the recipient may also be determined by default terms, which may not be what you have in mind.

Life Insurance Policies.

The beneficiary designations on an insurance policy determine who will receive proceeds upon your death. Laws vary by state, so check with an estate planning attorney to learn what would happen if you died without updating life insurance policies. A simpler strategy is to create a list of all of your financial accounts, determine how they are distributed and update names as necessary.

Note there are exceptions to all rules. If your divorce agreement includes a provision naming your ex as the sole beneficiary, you may not have an option to make a change.

Financial Accounts

Adding another person to your bank account through various means—Payable on Death (POD), Transfer on Death (TOD), or Joint Tenancy with Right of Survivorship (JTWROS)—may generally override a will, but may not be acceptable for all accounts, or to all financial institutions. There are unanticipated consequences of transferring assets this way, including the simplest: once transferred, assets are immediately vulnerable to creditors, divorce proceedings, etc.

Trusts

Trusts are used in estate planning to remove assets from a personal estate and place them in safekeeping for beneficiaries. Once the assets are properly transferred into the trust, their distribution and use are defined by the trust document. The flexibility and variety of trusts makes this a key estate planning tool, regardless of the value of the assets in the estate.

Reference: AARP Magazine (Sep. 29, 2021) “The Legal Limits of Your Will”

Does a Beneficiary on a Bank Account Override a Will?

You’ve named beneficiaries to accounts many times already, when you opened an IRA, bought an insurance annuity, a life insurance policy, started an investment account, signed up for a pension or bought shares in a mutual fund. These are the accounts that come to mind when people think about beneficiary designations. However, according to a recent article in Forbes titled “Do You Need a Beneficiary for Your Bank Account?,” they are not the only financial instruments with beneficiary designations.

When you open a bank account, most retail banks don’t ask you to name a beneficiary, but it’s not because you can’t. If the bank allows beneficiaries on their accounts, it’s usually a pretty simple process. In most cases, you’ll be asked to fill out a form or go through the bank’s process online.

Banks don’t push for beneficiary accounts because they are not required to do so. However, this is a smart move and can be a helpful part of your estate plan. The biggest benefit: funds in the account will be distributed directly to the beneficiary upon your death. They won’t have to go through probate and won’t be part of your estate. Otherwise, whatever assets you keep in your bank accounts will be counted as part of your estate and subject to probate.

Probate is a court process to validate the will and the named executor, supervising the distribution of assets from your estate. In some cases, it can be complicated, take months to complete and depending on the size of your estate, be expensive. If the money in your bank accounts does not go to a beneficiary, it can be used to pay off estate debts instead of going straight to a beneficiary.

For married people, bank account funds are treated differently. Half of the balance goes to your spouse upon death, the rest goes through probate.

Naming a beneficiary is a better alternative. The beneficiary may collect the money immediately. They’ll need to go to the bank with an original or certified copy of a death certificate, required identification (usually a driver’s license) and the money is transferred to them.

If you are married and don’t live in a community property estate, a surviving spouse may be able to dispute the terms of a beneficiary arrangement, but that will take time.

Another means of transferring assets in a bank account is to change your accounts to POD, or Payable On Death accounts. There are other names: In Trust For (ITF), Totten Trust or Transfer on Death (TOD). The named beneficiary is referred to as the POD beneficiary.

There is considerable flexibility when naming a POD beneficiary. It may be a living person, or it can be an organization, including a nonprofit charity or other trusts. You are not allowed to name a non-living legal entity, like a corporation, limited liability company (LLC) or partnership.

Beneficiary designations override wills, so if you forget to change them, the person named will still receive the money, even if that was not your intent. You should review beneficiaries for all of your accounts every year or so. Divorce, death, marriages, births and any other lifetime events are also reasons to check on beneficiary designations.

Reference: Forbes (July 9, 2021) “Do You Need a Beneficiary for Your Bank Account?”

Do Unrecorded Deeds Help or Hurt Estate Planning?

Using an unrecorded deed to transfer property without probate sounds like an easy way to transfer ownership of the family home, but is it asking for trouble? That’s the topic of an article from NWI Times entitled, “Estate Planning: Are unrecorded deeds a good idea?” The fact that the idea came from a family’s attorney makes the question even more important. The attorney told the parents the children could record the deed after their deaths and transfer the property without probate.

Most estate planning attorneys haven’t seen this technique used in a long time, and some may never have heard of it. There’s probably a good reason for this—it’s an estate mess waiting to happen.

First of all, what if the deed itself goes missing? One of the most common questions estate planning attorneys hear is “What do I do because Mom lost the_____?” Fill in the blanks—the deed, the title to the car, the bank statement, etc. Important documents often get lost. If a deed is missing and can’t be recorded, title can’t be transferred. Hoping an important piece of paper doesn’t get lost is not an estate plan.

Until the deed is recorded, and title transferred, the holders of the title still own the property. They can mortgage the property or sell it. The plan for the children to receive and record the deed may not have legal authority.

Laws about how deeds must be created change. Indiana made a change to the law in 2020 that required signatures on deeds to be witnessed. Without the witness, the deeds can’t be recorded. If the adult child is holding a deed for the recording and it’s not witnessed because the parents have died, it can’t be recorded.

There are better ways to transfer ownership of the family home that adhere to the general principles of estate planning.

There are also different types of deeds that are more commonly used in estate planning to transfer home ownership without going through probate. One is a Transfer on Death Deed (TOD Deeds). A TOD deed allows a person to name beneficiaries on their real estate property without giving up any rights of ownership. The TOD deed is recorded, so there’s no worry about mom or pop losing the paperwork.  The TOD deed can also be changed by recording another deed or using an affidavit.

Trusts can also be used to transfer home ownership and keep the transaction out of probate. An estate planning attorney will be able to explain the different types of trusts used to transfer a home. State laws vary, and allowable trusts vary, so talking with a local estate planning attorney is the best option.

Reference: NWI Times (May23, 2021) “Estate Planning: Are unrecorded deeds a good idea?”

Retirement Account Beneficiary Choices and Your Estate

A designated beneficiary is the person named on a retirement or investment account to inherit the asset if you die. That’s the simple part. What gets complicated is when people don’t think it’s such a big deal, says a recent article “5 Mistakes To Avoid With Retirement Account Beneficiary Selections” from Forbes. Mistakes made about beneficiaries can be costly and sometimes, unfixable. You could accidently disinherit a child or leave money to an ex-spouse.

Even if you have done all the right estate planning, mistakes with beneficiaries can happen. Just remember this very simple fact: your will does not control your retirement accounts and it may not control any accounts where you have been asked to name the person who inherits the asset, like a life insurance policy.

A will can also push your estate into the probate process, which can have some significant pitfalls. If you have a living trust but neglect to fund it, the assets left outside of the trust might also have to go through probate. The best way for most people to pass assets like retirement accounts is to have them go directly to a beneficiary.

Other accounts that pass via beneficiary designation are usually 401(k)s, IRAs, Roth IRAs, life insurance, annuities, and investment accounts that have Transfer on Death (TOD) options. Using beneficiary designations may allow your heirs to receive assets in a tax-efficient and fast manner.

What are the top five mistakes people make for beneficiary designations?

Forgetting to name a beneficiary. This happens very commonly when people are young adults. It’s hard to imagine needing to name an heir when you are young and healthy, but not naming anyone creates headaches.

Ignoring special circumstances. When you have an heir with an addiction problem, one who has trouble managing money or who is preparing to leave a marriage, leaving them a large sum of money can create more problems. If your loved one has special needs and receives benefits from the government, an inheritance could put all their aid at risk. An estate planning attorney can help create a Special Needs Trust and plan for their future.

Using the wrong name. It sounds silly, but it happens often. If your loved one’s name is Jane Doe, or there are family members with very similar names, you’ll need to use more information to identify them, like birthdates, Social Security numbers and even details about their relationship to you. Not providing enough clear information, could send your asset into the wrong hands.

Neglecting to update your beneficiaries. The person you name as your beneficiary when you are in your 30s, may not be the same person you want to inherit your assets in your 60s. If you have remarried, you must change all beneficiary designations to protect your current spouse. If you have had children or additional children since you first purchased a life insurance policy, you’ll need to be sure that all your children are named on that policy. Every few years, just as you need to review your estate plan, you need to update your beneficiaries.

Failing to discuss your beneficiaries with your estate planning attorney, tax, and financial advisor. There are complications that can occur with an inheritance. Being pushed into a higher bracket sounds like a nice problem to have, until the tax bill comes due. Your estate planning attorney will be able to work with you and your loved ones to protect your legacy and their future.

Reference: Forbes (Oct. 25, 2020) “5 Mistakes To Avoid With Retirement Account Beneficiary Selections”

Estate Planning for Unmarried Couples

For some couples, getting married just doesn’t feel necessary. However, they don’t enjoy the automatic legal rights and protections that legally wed spouses do, especially when it comes to death. There are many spousal rights that come with a marriage certificate, reports CNBC in the article “Here’s what happens to your partner if you’re not married and you die.” Without the benefit of marriage, extra planning is necessary to protect each other.

Taxes are a non-starter. There’s no federal or state income tax form that will permit a non-married couple to file jointly. If one of the couple’s employers is the source of health insurance for both, the amount that the company contributes is taxable to the employee. A spouse doesn’t have to pay taxes on health insurance.

More important, however, is what happens when one of the partners dies or becomes incapacitated. A number of documents need to be created, so should one become incapacitated, the other is able to act on their behalf. Preparations also need to be made, so the surviving partner is protected and can manage the deceased’s estate.

In order to be prepared, an estate plan is necessary. Creating a plan for what happens to you and your estate is critical for unmarried couples who want their commitment to each other to be protected at death. The general default for a married couple is that everything goes to the surviving spouse. However, for unmarried couples, the default may be a sibling, children, parents or other relatives. It won’t be the unmarried partner.

This is especially true, if a person dies with no will. The courts in the state of residence will decide who gets what, depending upon the law of that state. If there are multiple heirs who have conflicting interests, it could become nasty—and expensive.

However, a will isn’t all that is needed.

Most tax-advantaged accounts—Roth IRAs, traditional IRAs, 401(k) plans, etc.—have beneficiaries named. That person receives the assets upon death of the owner. The same is true for investment accounts, annuities, life insurance and any financial product that has a beneficiary named. The beneficiary receives the asset, regardless of what is in the will. Therefore, checking beneficiaries need to be part of the estate plan.

Checking, savings and investment accounts that are in both partner’s names will become the property of the surviving person, but accounts with only one person’s name on them will not. A Transfer on Death (TOD) or Payable on Death (POD) designation should be added to any single-name accounts.

Unmarried couples who own a home together need to check how the deed is titled, regardless who is on the mortgage. The legal owner is the person whose name is on the deed. If the house is only in one person’s name, it won’t become part of the estate. Change the deed so both names are on the deed with rights of survivorship, so both are entitled to assume full ownership upon the death of the other.

To prepare for incapacity, an estate planning attorney can help create a durable power of attorney for health care, so partners will be able to make medical decisions on each other’s behalf. A living will should also be created for both people, which states wishes for end of life decisions. For financial matters, a durable power of attorney will allow each partner to have control over each other’s financial affairs.

It takes a little extra planning for unmarried couples, but the peace of mind that comes from knowing that you have prepared to care for each other, until death do you part, is priceless.

Reference: CNBC (Dec. 16, 2019) “Here’s what happens to your partner if you’re not married and you die”